Abstract

This study examined the contribution of maritime activities to the environmental degradation of coastal areas in Nigeria, with emphasis on the effects of marine pollution on coastal communities and ecosystems. A survey design was adopted, and a questionnaire built on a five-point Likert scale (Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, Strongly Disagree) was the main instrument. The population was 100 staff of the state ministry of environment, from whom 50 respondents were selected by simple random sampling. Data were analysed with percentages and the Pearson Product Moment Correlation, and the results were presented in tables. The findings were that marine pollution is hazardous to the environment, that it affects the community of living organisms in the Niger Delta, that environmental degradation has a significant impact in the Niger Delta, and that marine pollution can be reduced. The study aimed to quantify the effect of marine pollution on living organisms in the Niger Delta, interpret the findings and convey their implications to decision-makers. The results are meant to guide future control of gas flaring and to help the affected communities.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

1.1.1 The concept and sources of marine pollution

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines marine pollution as the human introduction, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment that is likely to harm living resources, endanger human health, hinder marine activities such as fishing, or reduce the quality of seawater for use (United Nations, 1982). In practice, harmful or potentially harmful effects arise from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste, noise and invasive organisms.

Most marine pollution is generally recognised as originating from human activity on land, with a smaller share from activity at sea (Onwuegbuchunam, Ebe, Okoroji, & Essien, 2017). Air pollution also contributes by carrying pesticides and dust into the ocean. Much of this pollution comes from non-point sources such as agricultural runoff and wind-blown debris. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, results from excess nitrogen or phosphorus, which stimulates algal growth and can cause eutrophication of surface waters.

1.1.2 Effects on marine life and human health

Many toxic chemicals attach to fine particles, which are taken up by plankton and bottom-dwelling animals, and the toxins are then concentrated up the food chain. Decomposing organic matter can deplete oxygen and make estuaries anoxic. Pesticides entering marine food webs can cause mutations and disease and may harm humans. Toxic metals can change tissues, biochemistry, behaviour and reproduction in marine organisms and suppress their growth. Because fish meal is widely used in animal feeds, marine toxins can also reach land animals and appear in meat and dairy products.

1.1.3 Shipping and maritime activities

Shipping is the backbone of world trade. UNCTAD (2023) reports that maritime transport carries over 80 per cent of world merchandise trade by volume. Ships can nevertheless harm the marine environment in several ways. Onwuegbuchunam et al. (2017) list the following:

• oil and other hazardous or toxic substances from incidental, operational and illegal discharges;
• air pollution from engine exhaust gases;
• discharges of sewage and garbage;
• toxic chemicals from anti-fouling paints and heavy metals from anodes;
• non-indigenous species carried in ballast water and on hulls;
• pollution and physical damage from the loss of ships and cargo; and
• noise and collisions with marine mammals.

International regulation addresses many of these. The MARPOL convention covers pollution by oil, noxious liquids, packaged harmful substances, sewage, garbage and air emissions through its annexes, and the Ballast Water Management Convention of 2004 addresses the transfer of harmful organisms (International Maritime Organization [IMO], 1973/1978, 2004). Ports are obliged to provide waste reception facilities. These measures have been most successful in reducing accidental spills from collisions, but pollution from routine and non-accidental discharges continues, and many ports lack adequate reception facilities (Onwuegbuchunam et al., 2017).

Evidence from Nigerian seaports shows the problem. Onwuegbuchunam et al. (2017) analysed ship wastewater samples at Apapa and Calabar ports. They found that parameters such as conductivity, suspended solids, turbidity, biochemical and chemical oxygen demand, iron, lead and cadmium exceeded the permissible limits of Nigeria's Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR). They concluded that the seaport environment was polluted despite the existing control framework. Later studies at Warri Port reached similar conclusions. Kim, Anyanwu and Dirisu (2024) found that the oil and grease content of ship bilge water (72 µg/L) exceeded the DPR limit (48 µg/L). Tonjoh, Anyanwu, Omorogieva and Okorefe (2024) reported that ship-generated bilge, ballast and black wastewater and garbage had a significant impact on Nigeria's coastal environment.

1.1.4 Oil and gas operations and gas flaring in the Niger Delta

Beyond shipping, oil and gas operations are a leading source of coastal degradation in the Niger Delta. Oil spills, gas flaring and other practices have damaged land, air and water (James, Olaniyi, & Olatubosun, 2022, 2023). James, Olaniyi and Olatubosun (2024) note that thousands of spill incidents have been recorded in the region, with grave effects on marine life and mangroves, and that the region is arguably among those with the highest volume of gas flaring in the world.

Gas flaring is the burning of natural gas that is produced with crude oil. Uchegbulam, Aliyuda and John (2022) reviewed its effects in the Niger Delta. They found that flared gas releases greenhouse gases, volatile organic compounds, particulate matter and many toxic substances. These emissions are linked to acid rain, air, soil, water, heat, light and noise pollution, loss of biodiversity and vegetation, health problems and damage to housing and shorelines. Flaring is often close to communities and has coated land and homes with soot and damaged nearby vegetation. Some studies suggest that flares contribute to acid rain, while others argue that the sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide content of many flares is too low to establish a link, so the extent of that effect is debated.

The courts have recognised the harm. In Gbemre v. Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd. (2005), the Federal High Court in Benin City ruled that gas flaring violated the constitutional rights to life and dignity and ordered that it must stop (Nwokorie, J.). The decision is widely cited because flaring in the Niger Delta has nevertheless continued.

1.1.5 Legal and institutional framework in Nigeria

Nigeria's legal framework mainly addresses oil pollution in the petroleum sector. Several agencies share responsibility. These include the Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA), which is responsible for waste reception facilities, the Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency (NIMASA), the National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA), the DPR and the environment ministry. Onwuegbuchunam et al. (2017) observe that these overlapping functions weaken regulation, and that waste reception services are outsourced to a private contractor without independent audit. These institutional weaknesses are part of the context for this study.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Environmental pollution and degradation of the marine environment in Nigeria are a long-standing problem. They result from oil spills, oil exploitation and lifting, gas flaring and the introduction of noxious and harmful substances. Over the years these activities have destroyed aquatic life, vegetation and ecosystems (James et al., 2022; Uchegbulam et al., 2022). The problem has never received adequate national attention.

Poor practices by ships engaged in coastal trade in Nigerian waters aggravate it. These include sewage disposal at sea, the introduction of hazardous substances, chemical fishing and the abandonment of wrecks (Onwuegbuchunam et al., 2017). These practices have continued largely unchecked. They have cut residents of affected areas off from fishing and farming, their traditional sources of livelihood, and imposed serious hardship on them. They have also harmed the development of the Nigerian maritime transport system.

1.3 Significance of the Study

Marine environmental pollution is the introduction into the marine environment and adjacent lands of any substance that causes harmful change in the environment and ecosystem. The Niger Delta depends heavily on its environment for living, so adverse change affects residents' way of life and standard of living. The collapse of the marine environment would undermine the fishing, farming, transport and other economic activities that depend on it.

The study is therefore significant for the following reasons.

1. It will alert maritime practitioners to the need to protect the marine environment.
2. It will inform government about the hardship caused by oil spills and by pollution from maritime activities, and it will support efforts to preserve the region's traditional occupations of fishing and farming.
3. It will provide students of maritime colleges with a reference.
4. It will add to the evidence available to policymakers on pollution control and enforcement (Onwuegbuchunam et al., 2017).

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The main objective is to assess how maritime activities contribute to the environmental degradation of coastal areas in Nigeria and to analyse the impacts of that degradation. The specific objectives are:

1. to examine the effect of marine pollution on the community of living organisms in the Niger Delta; and
2. to ascertain whether environmental degradation has a significant impact in the Niger Delta.

1.5 Research Questions

1. Does marine pollution affect the community of living organisms in the Niger Delta?
2. What is the impact of environmental degradation in the Niger Delta?

1.6 Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis One
H₀: Marine pollution in the Niger Delta does not affect the community of living organisms in the environment.
H₁: Marine pollution in the Niger Delta affects the community of living organisms in the environment.

Hypothesis Two
H₀: Environmental degradation has no significant impact in the Niger Delta.
H₁: Environmental degradation has a significant impact in the Niger Delta.

1.7 Limitations of the Study

The study investigated the contribution of maritime activities to environmental degradation of coastal areas in Nigeria. It was limited to refineries in coastal areas, which were chosen as representative of refineries in Nigeria. Their proximity to the researcher, and time and financial constraints, also influenced the choice. The sample was drawn from a population of 100 staff of the state ministry of environment, so the results should be generalised to other contexts with caution.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The study covers the contribution of maritime activities to the environmental degradation of coastal areas in Nigeria, with particular emphasis on how it affects the community of living organisms in the environment, with a view to proposing lasting solutions.

1.9 Definition of Terms

Marine pollution: The introduction by humans, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment that harms living resources, endangers human health, hinders marine activities or reduces the quality of seawater (United Nations, 1982).

Maritime activities: Activities connected with the sea, including shipping, port operations, offshore oil and gas operations and fishing.

Environmental degradation: The deterioration of the environment through the depletion of resources, the destruction of ecosystems and pollution.

Gas: An air-like fluid that expands freely to fill any available space.

Gas flaring: The burning of natural gas that is produced together with crude oil when it is pumped from the ground.

Ecosystem: A community of living organisms interacting with the non-living components of their environment, such as air, water and mineral soil, as a system.

1.10 Organisation of the Study

Chapter One introduces the study. Chapter Two reviews related literature. Chapter Three describes the research methodology. Chapter Four presents and analyses the data. Chapter Five summarises the findings, draws conclusions and makes recommendations.

References

Gbemre v. Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd. (2005). Suit No. FHC/B/CS/153/05 (Federal High Court, Benin City, Nigeria).

International Maritime Organization. (1973/1978). International convention for the prevention of pollution from ships (MARPOL 73/78). IMO.

International Maritime Organization. (2004). International convention for the control and management of ships' ballast water and sediments. IMO.

James, R. T., Olaniyi, T. K., & Olatubosun, P. (2022). Investigating the environmental sustainability issues of oil and gas operations in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. International Journal of Sustainable Energy Development, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.20533/ijsed.2046.3707.2022.0055

James, R. T., Olaniyi, T. K., & Olatubosun, P. (2023). Analysing the concept of environmental sustainability in oil and gas operations in the Global South: A case study of Nigeria–Niger Delta. International Journal of Sustainable Energy Development, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.20533/ijsed.2046.3707.2023.00623

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Onwuegbuchunam, D. E., Ebe, T. E., Okoroji, L. I., & Essien, A. E. (2017). An analysis of ship-source marine pollution in Nigeria seaports. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 5(3), Article 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse5030039

Tonjoh, A. J., Anyanwu, O. J., Omorogieva, M. O., & Okorefe, O. C. (2024). Evaluation of physicochemical parameters of ship-borne bilge, ballast and black wastewaters obtained from ships docked in Warri Port, Delta State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 28(12).

Uchegbulam, I., Aliyuda, A., & John, Y. M. (2022). Sustainable environment: A comprehensive evaluation of the effects of gas flaring in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 26(5). https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v26i5.21

UNCTAD. (2023). Review of maritime transport 2023: Towards a green and just transition. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.

United Nations. (1982). United Nations convention on the law of the sea. United Nations.