CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Pottery is one of the most durable and informative categories of material culture that archaeologists encounter. Fired clay does not decay in the way that wood, fibre, bone and other organic materials do, and broken vessels (potsherds) therefore accumulate in settlements, rock shelters, ritual deposits and burial contexts as an almost continuous record of human activity. Because every vessel results from a series of decisions about raw material selection, paste preparation, forming, surface treatment, drying and firing, and because each vessel is later used, repaired, exchanged and discarded, pottery carries information on technology, subsistence, social organisation, belief and interaction (Rice, 1987; Orton & Hughes, 2013). For this reason, ceramic studies occupy a central place in archaeological reconstructions of past societies, particularly in regions such as West Africa where climatic conditions limit the preservation of organic remains (Oguamanam et al., 2020).

In the archaeology of Africa, and of Nigeria in particular, pottery has been used to build culture-historical sequences, to define regional traditions, and to trace population movement and technological change (Sule & Haour, 2014). In southeastern Nigeria, the pioneering excavations of Thurstan Shaw at Igbo-Ukwu in the 1960s drew international attention to the sophistication of Igbo craft traditions. Shaw (1970) reported that the three excavated sites (Igbo Isaiah, Igbo Richard and Igbo Jonah) yielded not only remarkable copper and bronze objects but also highly decorated pottery, together with ivory and a large quantity of imported beads. Recent fieldwork has reaffirmed the importance of ceramics at the site. Daraojimba et al. (2022) reported that excavations in 2019 and 2021 recovered a large assemblage of Igbo-Ukwu ware extending about two kilometres south of the original sites, and that multivariate and elemental (pXRF) analysis of the pottery revealed similar fabrics with variation in colour and chemical composition. Their three radiocarbon dates fell between the end of the ninth and the second half of the thirteenth centuries CE, demonstrating that ceramic evidence can substantially extend our understanding of the temporal and spatial scale of precolonial Igbo settlement.

Pottery making is also a living tradition in parts of Igboland, which has allowed archaeologists to combine excavation with ethnographic observation. Okpoko (1987), in an ethnoarchaeological study, outlined pottery manufacturing processes in Igboland and emphasised pottery decoration (techniques and motifs) within socio-cultural and economic contexts, the way potters and users classify their wares, and the factors that favour or threaten the continuation of pottery production, including the status of potters and the learning process. Ibeanu (1989) had earlier proposed Inyi as a probable centre for the production of Igbo-Ukwu pottery, linking contemporary potting communities to an ancient ceramic industry. Such studies show that, in Igboland, the study of potsherds can be strengthened by what living potters know about clay, vessel forms, firing and use.

Ebonyi State, created in 1996 from parts of Abia and Enugu States, lies in the southeastern region of Nigeria and is inhabited predominantly by Igbo-speaking peoples (Ebonyi State Government, n.d.). The state is predominantly agricultural, and pottery, blacksmithing, masquerade traditions and the New Yam festival are recognised as important expressions of its cultural identity (Ebonyi State Government, n.d.). Archaeologically, the Afikpo area has long been significant. Hartle's work on rock shelters in the Afikpo and Nsukka areas, and subsequent excavations by Andah and Anozie (1980/81) and Chikwendu, established that the area preserves evidence of long human occupation, with ceramic phases dated to the first millennium BC at sites such as Ukpa and Ugwuegu, as summarised by Oguamanam et al. (2020). Within the Afikpo area, Oguamanam et al. (2020) documented potsherds from Rock Shelter 10 at Ozizza, where a 2 m × 2 m test pit excavated to a depth of 120 cm yielded 290 artefacts, including 152 potsherds, and where comparison with contemporary Ozizza wares indicated continuity with only slight change in vessel attributes and decoration. Their work also noted that Ozizza had never before been systematically studied archaeologically, and that the pottery tradition was in the hands of ageing women, raising concern about its future (Oguamanam et al., 2020).

Despite these advances, the archaeological record of pottery in Ebonyi State remains uneven. Most published work concentrates on a few localities in the Afikpo cuesta, while many pottery-producing and pottery-bearing communities elsewhere in the state have received little or no systematic investigation. Igbeagwa community, located in Ebonyi State, is one such community. Local knowledge, surface scatters of potsherds and the continued presence of clay sources and pottery-related practices suggest that the community was a locus of pottery production and use in precolonial times. A systematic archaeological study of the pottery sites in Igbeagwa is therefore needed to document the sites, characterise the pottery, and interpret the technology, function and cultural significance of the wares in their precolonial context.

The present study accordingly adopts an archaeological approach, supported by ethnographic and oral-historical enquiry, to investigate pottery production and use at pottery sites in Igbeagwa community, Ebonyi State. It is intended to contribute to the growing body of knowledge on Igbo ceramic traditions, to support the documentation of an endangered craft heritage, and to provide baseline data for future research and heritage management in the study area.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The archaeology of southeastern Nigeria has been dominated by a small number of well-known sites and areas, most notably Igbo-Ukwu (Shaw, 1970; Daraojimba et al., 2022), the Nsukka–Okigwe cuesta and the Afikpo rock shelters (Andah & Anozie, 1980/81; Oguamanam et al., 2020). Although these studies have produced valuable chronological and typological information, large parts of Ebonyi State remain archaeologically under-researched. Oguamanam et al. (2020) themselves observed that there had been no systematic archaeological study of Ozizza before their research, and a similar gap exists for many other communities in the state, including Igbeagwa.

Second, the pottery that has been excavated in Nigeria is often poorly studied after excavation. Sule and Haour (2014) observed, in a review of archaeology in northern Nigeria, that archaeology in the country has tended to emphasise excavation, and they called for much more sustained post-excavation analysis, including revisiting material such as pottery that remains in the archives of Nigerian institutions. A comparable situation affects the Igbo area, where descriptive accounts of pottery are sometimes not matched by detailed analyses of fabric, forming technique, firing, use and discard.

Third, traditional pottery making is declining. Okpoko (1987) identified factors that might lead to the eventual abandonment of pottery production in Igboland, and Oguamanam et al. (2020) reported that in Ozizza the potters were mostly elderly women while younger women showed little interest in the craft, so that the tradition risked being remembered only in stories and songs. As older potters die, the knowledge that is needed to interpret ancient pottery (about clay sources, tempering, vessel naming, firing arrangements and the social uses of pots) is being lost. Pottery sites in Igbeagwa are therefore at risk both physically (through farming, building and erosion) and culturally (through the loss of the knowledge-holders).

Finally, little is known about how pottery was produced and used in the precolonial communities of the study area. There is no systematic documentation of the pottery sites in Igbeagwa, no published typology of the wares, no analysis of the technology of manufacture, and no assessment of the functions of the vessels or their relationship to the subsistence, ritual and economic life of the community. This lack of baseline data limits the ability of archaeologists, heritage managers and the community to understand, interpret and protect the cultural heritage of the area. This study seeks to address these problems.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to investigate, through archaeological methods supported by ethnographic and oral-historical data, the production and use of pottery in precolonial communities, using the pottery sites in Igbeagwa community, Ebonyi State, as a case study.

1.3.2 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of the study are to:

1. locate, record and map the pottery sites in Igbeagwa community and describe their physical and cultural settings;
2. document the pottery recovered from the sites in terms of fabric, vessel form, size, surface treatment and decoration;
3. reconstruct the technology of pottery production in the area, including the sources and preparation of clay and temper, the methods of forming and finishing, and the techniques of firing;
4. determine the possible functions and uses of the pottery, whether domestic, ritual, economic or other;
5. compare the archaeological pottery with the wares made and used by contemporary or recently active potters in Igbeagwa and neighbouring communities, in order to assess continuity and change.

1.4 Research Questions

1. Where are the pottery sites in Igbeagwa community located, and what are their physical and cultural characteristics?
2. What are the characteristics of the pottery recovered from the sites in terms of fabric, form, surface treatment and decoration?
3. What technological processes were involved in the production of the pottery?
4. For what purposes were the vessels used in precolonial Igbeagwa society?
5. To what extent does the archaeological pottery show continuity with, or difference from, pottery made and used in the area in recent times?

1.5 Significance of the Study

Contribution to knowledge. The study will provide the first systematic archaeological documentation of the pottery sites in Igbeagwa community. By describing the fabric, form and decoration of the pottery and reconstructing its production and use, it will add to existing knowledge of Igbo ceramic traditions (Okpoko, 1987; Ibeanu, 1989) and extend the geographical coverage of studies in Ebonyi State beyond localities such as Ozizza and Ukpa in the Afikpo area (Andah & Anozie, 1980/81; Oguamanam et al., 2020).

Regional comparison and culture history. The data will allow comparison with assemblages from Igbo-Ukwu (Shaw, 1970; Daraojimba et al., 2022), the Afikpo rock shelters and other parts of Igboland, which is important for understanding relationships between communities in southeastern Nigeria and the extent to which pottery traditions were shared or diverged.

Documentation of intangible heritage. By recording the memories and practices of potters and elders, the study will preserve knowledge that is rapidly disappearing as pottery making declines (Okpoko, 1987; Oguamanam et al., 2020). This is valuable both for archaeological interpretation and for the cultural identity of the people of Igbeagwa.

Heritage management and community development. The study will provide baseline data for the protection and management of the sites. Oguamanam et al. (2020) argued that pottery wares in Ozizza are valuable objects for the promotion of cultural heritage and that local crafts, if strengthened, can create jobs. The findings may similarly support heritage education, cultural tourism and livelihood initiatives in Igbeagwa, and will be useful to the Ebonyi State Government, the National Commission for Museums and Monuments and the community itself.

Methodological value. The combination of archaeological survey, excavation and ethnographic enquiry follows approaches already applied in the region (Okonkwo & Ikegwu, 2020; Oguamanam et al., 2020). The study will test these approaches in a new setting and provide a model for similar research elsewhere.

Academic and policy relevance. The study will serve as a reference for students and researchers of archaeology, history, anthropology, art and ceramics, and will inform policy on the inventory and protection of archaeological resources in Nigeria.

1.6 Scope of the Study

Geographical scope. The study is limited to pottery sites located within Igbeagwa community in Ebonyi State, southeastern Nigeria. Where necessary, comparisons are drawn with published data from neighbouring communities and other parts of Igboland.

Thematic scope. The study focuses on the production and use of pottery. It covers site location and setting, the physical attributes of the pottery (fabric, form, surface treatment and decoration), manufacturing technology, vessel function, the social organisation of production, and the continuity or change observed when archaeological wares are compared with recently made wares. Other classes of material culture are discussed only where they help to interpret the pottery.

Temporal scope. The study is concerned with the precolonial period, that is, the time before the establishment of colonial rule in the area. Because many pottery traditions in Igboland extend into the present (Okpoko, 1987), contemporary ethnographic data are used for analogy, as a means of interpreting the archaeological record and not as the object of the study.

Methodological scope. The study combines archaeological survey, test excavation and surface collection with laboratory description of ceramics, together with oral-historical and ethnographic interviews, following earlier research in the Afikpo area (Okonkwo & Ikegwu, 2020; Oguamanam et al., 2020).

1.7 Limitations of the Study

1. Time and funding. Archaeological fieldwork, laboratory analysis and radiometric dating are costly. Oguamanam et al. (2020) reported that, owing to financial constraints, the materials they excavated at Ozizza had not been dated. This study may be similarly limited in the number of excavation units, the sample size and the availability of absolute dating, in which case relative dating and comparison with dated assemblages elsewhere will be used.
2. Sampling. Because excavation is destructive and expensive, only a small proportion of each site can be excavated. The results therefore represent a sample of the site, and generalisation is made cautiously.
3. Preservation and disturbance. Farming, erosion, construction and the shallow nature of some deposits may have disturbed archaeological contexts and reduced the integrity of the deposits.
4. Fragmentary evidence. Potsherds are often small and eroded, and few complete vessels are likely to be recovered, which limits reconstruction of overall vessel shape and size.
5. Informant memory. Oral data depend on the memory of elders, and some knowledge of precolonial pottery practices may already have been lost. Interview data are therefore cross-checked among informants and with the archaeological evidence.
6. Accessibility and cultural restrictions. Some sites may be regarded as sacred or may be difficult to access in the rainy season. Access is negotiated with community leaders, and the study respects local customs and restrictions.

1.8 Definition of Terms

Archaeology: the scientific study of past human societies through the recovery, analysis and interpretation of their material remains.

Pottery: vessels and other objects made from clay and hardened by firing.

Potsherd: a broken fragment of a pottery vessel, which may be a rim, neck, body or base sherd.

Precolonial: the period before the imposition of European colonial rule in Nigeria.

Fabric: the paste of a pottery vessel, comprising the clay and any natural or added inclusions, as seen in a fresh break.

Temper (grog): material added to clay to improve its working and firing properties; grog is crushed fired pottery (Oguamanam et al., 2020).

Chaîne opératoire: the sequence of technical operations by which raw material is transformed into a finished product.

Ethnoarchaeology: the study of living communities to gain insights that help to interpret the archaeological record.

Typology: the classification of artefacts into types on the basis of shared attributes such as form, decoration or function.

Test pit: a small excavation unit dug to establish the depth, nature and content of archaeological deposits.

Igbeagwa community: the community in Ebonyi State, Nigeria, that forms the case study area of this research.

References

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Ebonyi State Government. (n.d.). About Ebonyi. https://ebonyistate.gov.ng/about-ebonyi

Ibeanu, A. M. (1989). Inyi: A probable centre for the Igbo-Ukwu pottery. West African Journal of Archaeology, 19, 137–159.

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Okpoko, A. I. (1987). Pottery-making in Igboland, Eastern Nigeria: An ethnoarchaeological study. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 53, 445–455.

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Sule, A. S., & Haour, A. (2014). The archaeology of northern Nigeria: Trade, people and polities, 1500 BP onwards. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 49(4), 439–462.