CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Reducing food insecurity remains a major public policy concern in developing countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization and other United Nations agencies, approximately 733 million people worldwide experienced hunger in 2023. Hunger has continued to increase in several regions, especially across Africa and Western Asia (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO, 2024). In Africa, available data for 2022 showed that about 25% of the population experienced food insecurity, with both moderate and severe food insecurity increasing steadily from 2015 (FAO et al., 2023). Furthermore, the 2022 Global Report on Food Crises indicated that approximately 193 million people across 53 countries experienced severe food insecurity (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO, 2022). Sub-Saharan Africa recorded a Global Food Security Index (GFSI) score of 47.0 in 2022, which was considerably below the global average of 62.2, identifying the region as one of the most food-insecure areas in the world (Otekunrin et al., 2023). The continuous increase in food prices has also raised public concern about hunger and encouraged renewed international commitments to invest in agriculture in developing countries (Fan & Rosegrant, 2008).

Nigeria is one of the countries significantly affected by this growing food crisis. The country has one of the highest numbers of people experiencing food crisis conditions globally, ranking fifth behind Yemen, Ethiopia, Afghanistan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (WFP, 2023). Between 2020 and 2022, an average of 21.3% of Nigeria's population experienced hunger, while the Food and Agriculture Organization projected that more than 26.5 million Nigerians could face hunger in 2024 (FAO, 2023). If the situation is not addressed through effective interventions, projections suggest that the number of Nigerians experiencing hunger could reach 82 million by 2030 (APRI, 2024). This challenge is further complicated by rapid population growth. Nigeria's population is projected to exceed 400 million by 2050, while approximately 35% of the population was living in extreme poverty as of 2024 (APRI, 2024). These conditions place additional pressure on agricultural production, food distribution, and access to adequate nutrition.

Despite these challenges, agriculture remains one of the most important sectors of the Nigerian economy. It contributes to the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), provides employment for a large proportion of the population, and supplies a significant share of the nation's food requirements. Historical studies indicate that Nigeria was largely self-sufficient in food production and exported agricultural products to other parts of Africa during the 1950s and 1960s (Helleiner, 1996). However, the decades following independence were characterised by declining agricultural production and increasing population growth, which contributed to food shortages. The combined effects of these developments included higher food prices, reduced foreign exchange earnings from agricultural exports, and increasing food insecurity (Helleiner, 1996).

To address these problems, the Nigerian government has introduced several agricultural policies and development programmes aimed at increasing food production and improving food security. Some of the major policy initiatives include the Agricultural Promotion Policy (2016–2020), the Economic Recovery and Growth Plan (2017–2020), and the National Agricultural Technology and Innovation Policy (NATIP) 2022–2027 (Thomas & Turk, 2023). NATIP replaced earlier agricultural transformation approaches and focuses on improving food and nutrition security, creating employment, reducing dependence on food imports, and encouraging the adoption of technology in agricultural production (Federal Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development [FMARD], 2022). However, despite these policy interventions, food insecurity remains a major concern in several parts of the country, including Edo State in the South-South geopolitical zone. For instance, Ehiwario et al. (2024), in their study of farming households in Delta and Edo States, reported that food insecurity among farming households in the Niger Delta region was as high as 97.4%. This finding demonstrates the difference between the objectives of agricultural policies and the actual food security conditions experienced by rural households.

Food security is generally defined as a situation in which all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2020). Recent studies have further explained food security through four interconnected dimensions: food availability, food accessibility, food utilisation, and food stability. These dimensions must function together for individuals, households, and communities to achieve sustainable food security (Clapp, 2021; Kiribou et al., 2024). The 2022 World Food Summit framework also recognised these four dimensions as important components of food security (Kiribou et al., 2024). In addition, agency has been proposed as a fifth dimension, drawing attention to the rights and decision-making power associated with access to food (Berry et al., 2023).

At the farm household level, food availability involves having enough food through household agricultural production or other sources. However, many Nigerian farming households experience difficulties with food storage and financial resources. As a result, they often sell part of their agricultural produce immediately after harvest to meet urgent financial needs and later depend on market purchases during periods when food is scarce. This practice may increase their vulnerability to food insecurity during the lean season (Quinton et al., 2024). Food accessibility also depends on household income, social entitlements, and the physical ability to reach food markets. These conditions remain challenging for many rural households in Edo State. Therefore, the availability of sufficient food at the national level does not automatically mean that every household can obtain the minimum nutritional requirements needed for a healthy life. Differences in income, location, and social conditions can prevent vulnerable groups from accessing adequate food (Onyeaka et al., 2024).

Community food security is a broader concept that considers the food needs of an entire community rather than focusing only on individual households. It exists when all members of a community can obtain safe, culturally acceptable, and nutritionally adequate food through a sustainable food system that encourages local self-reliance and social justice (Hamm & Bellows, 2003). Recent research also explains that community food security is influenced by social, economic, and institutional conditions that determine the availability, quality, quantity, and affordability of food within a community (Okpara & Anugwa, 2022).

Against this background, this study examines the food security conditions of farming households and communities in Edo State. It considers the relationship between household food production, consumption, expenditure, and food insecurity, as well as the strategies adopted by households to manage food shortages. The study is also connected to the global commitment expressed in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG 2), which seeks to achieve Zero Hunger by 2030.

1.2 Problem Statement

Food insecurity remains a serious challenge across Africa, with Nigeria experiencing considerable difficulties despite its agricultural resources and production potential. The 2025 edition of the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World estimated that approximately 673 million people experienced hunger globally in 2024, while food insecurity continued to increase across several African subregions (FAO et al., 2025). In Nigeria, the World Food Programme (2023) reported that at least 19.5 million people required urgent humanitarian assistance in 2022. Communities affected by conflict in the north-eastern part of the country were also at risk of experiencing extremely severe food shortages. The situation has continued to attract concern, as the Food and Agriculture Organization projected that more than 26.5 million Nigerians could face hunger in 2024. This represented an increase from the estimated 18.6 million people who were already vulnerable to food insecurity between October and December 2023 (FAO in Nigeria, 2023).

Nigeria also faces persistent dependence on food imports, widespread malnutrition, and high levels of vulnerability among rural communities. Many households experience irregular food supplies, inadequate dietary quality, rising food prices, poor access to nutritious meals, and periods when certain food items become unavailable. The National Food Consumption and Micronutrient Survey conducted in 2021 (FGN & IITA, 2022) indicated that without additional public investment, significant levels of hunger, malnutrition, and poverty could continue beyond 2030. The report also showed that healthy diets remained financially inaccessible to more than 90% of the population. Child malnutrition is another major concern. The Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates published by WHO, UNICEF, and the World Bank (2023) reported considerable levels of stunting, wasting, and underweight among Nigerian children, with the northern states recording particularly severe conditions.

At the state level, research has identified farming households in Edo State and other parts of the Niger Delta as highly vulnerable to food insecurity. Ehiwario et al. (2024), in their investigation of farming households in Delta and Edo States, established that food insecurity was significantly associated with respondents' educational qualifications, household size, cooperative membership, farm income, access to agricultural extension services, and the technologies used in farming. Their findings indicated that adopting improved agricultural technologies and expanding extension services could help address food insecurity in the region. Similarly, Omotayo et al. (2022), in a study involving Edo State, found that household income, household size, expenditure on food, gender of the household head, and educational level significantly influenced household food security.

The causes of food insecurity in Nigeria are complex and interconnected. They include climate variability, insecurity and conflicts, inadequate rural infrastructure, limited access to agricultural credit and markets, and weaknesses in policy implementation. Thomas and Turk (2023), through an analysis published by the International Monetary Fund, showed that Nigeria's food insecurity situation was worse than that of comparable countries and that the country's relative position had declined since 2019.

Although agriculture provides employment for a significant proportion of Nigerians, the sector continues to experience structural challenges that limit productivity. These include inconsistent government policies, inadequate investment in agricultural research and development, poor post-harvest management, and limited access to quality agricultural inputs (Onwe et al., 2024). Rural poverty is another important factor, particularly among smallholder farmers who contribute a large share of agricultural production but often lack sufficient access to land, credit, productive resources, and extension services (Nnaji et al., 2022).

These challenges make it necessary to develop practical and evidence-based approaches to improving food security at household and community levels. In Edo State, understanding household expenditure and consumption patterns, measuring food security levels, identifying the factors influencing food security, and examining the coping strategies adopted during food shortages are important steps towards addressing the problem. This study therefore investigates these issues to provide information that can support the development of appropriate food security strategies for farming households in the state.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to examine strategies for achieving food security, using Edo State as a case study.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Examine the expenditure and food consumption patterns of farming households in the study area.

2. Determine the food security indices of farming households in the study area.

3. Identify the major factors influencing the food security status of farmers in the study area.

4. Describe the coping strategies adopted by farming households to reduce the effects of food insecurity during the lean season.

1.4 Research Questions

The study seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the expenditure and food consumption patterns of farming households in the study area?

2. What are the food security indices of farming households in the study area?

3. What are the major factors influencing the food security status of farmers in the study area?

4. What coping strategies do farming households adopt to minimise the effects of food insecurity during the lean season?

1.5 Significance of the Study

Food security is closely connected to national security, human welfare, and human dignity. The ability of a household to provide adequate food for its members is an important responsibility, while the ability of a nation to meet the food needs of its citizens is a fundamental part of national development. Therefore, a country that cannot provide an environment in which its population can access sufficient and nutritious food faces serious social and economic challenges.

The situation in Nigeria makes this issue particularly important. According to FAO (2023), more than 26.5 million Nigerians were at risk of hunger, while projections indicated that the figure could increase to 82 million by 2030 if existing conditions were not improved (APRI, 2024). This represents a major humanitarian, economic, and policy concern for a country that previously produced enough food to support domestic needs and export agricultural products to other African countries.

Nigeria's transition from being a food-exporting country to becoming heavily dependent on food imports was influenced partly by the expansion of the petroleum economy from the late 1960s. This development contributed to reduced attention to agricultural production and investment. Thomas and Turk (2023) observed that Nigeria's food security position had worsened compared with similar countries since 2019. This situation was further affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, increasing food prices, currency depreciation, insecurity in farming communities, and disruptions to international grain supply chains associated with the Russia-Ukraine conflict. These combined challenges have increased the difference between domestic food supply and demand, particularly among vulnerable farming households in states such as Edo.

Accurate information about household food security is necessary for designing, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating development programmes effectively (Charletto, 2001). Measuring food security at the household level also provides a basis for assessing changes in living conditions and determining the effects of agricultural projects, government programmes, and development policies on their intended beneficiaries (Hoddinott, 2001).

This study will contribute to existing research on food security strategies in Nigeria, particularly in the South-South region, where fewer studies have focused on the subject compared with some other geopolitical regions. Ehiwario et al. (2024) emphasised the importance of conducting state-specific research in Edo State because of the high levels of food insecurity identified among farming households in the area.

The findings will be useful to government policymakers, agricultural development agencies, extension workers, non-governmental organisations, and other development practitioners involved in improving food security in Edo State and similar locations. By examining conditions at the community level, the research will also consider the social, economic, and institutional factors that influence the quantity, quality, and affordability of food. This approach is consistent with research that highlights the importance of addressing community food security alongside household food security when developing interventions (Okpara & Anugwa, 2022).

Ultimately, the study is expected to provide practical information that can support the implementation of Nigeria's National Agricultural Technology and Innovation Policy (NATIP) 2022–2027 and contribute to the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 2, which aims to end hunger and improve food security by 2030.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study was conducted in selected communities within Edo State. Due to financial and budgetary limitations, the geographical coverage was restricted to eight communities. Farming households were selected through a random sampling process, while household heads served as the main respondents. Information was obtained from them on household agricultural production, food consumption, and expenditure patterns.

Most of the data collected were based on respondents' ability to remember and report their household activities because many smallholder farmers in Nigeria do not maintain formal records of their farming operations and household expenditure. This method of data collection may introduce some inaccuracies, as respondents may not always remember the exact quantities or amounts involved.

Another limitation is that the study is based on survey data collected in 2018. Consequently, the primary dataset does not capture more recent developments in Nigeria's food security situation, particularly the deterioration recorded from 2020 onwards (Omotayo et al., 2022; Thomas & Turk, 2023).

These limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings. The results reflect the conditions and information available during the survey period and should be examined alongside more recent research when discussing current food security conditions.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

Food Security: Food security refers to a situation in which every person has physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2020). It is a multidimensional concept based on four major components: food availability, accessibility, utilisation, and stability (Clapp, 2021; Kiribou et al., 2024).

Food Insecurity: Food insecurity is a condition in which individuals or households experience limited or uncertain access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food, or lack the ability to obtain acceptable food through socially acceptable means (USDA, as cited in Berry et al., 2023). It may occur over a long period, during particular seasons, or temporarily as a result of specific challenges affecting households and communities (Quinton et al., 2024).

Food Availability: Food availability refers to the presence of sufficient food within a particular location. It includes food obtained through domestic agricultural production, imports, and distribution systems (Clapp, 2021). As one of the major dimensions of food security, it is influenced by factors such as climate change, population growth, conflict, and agricultural productivity (Wheeler & von Braun, 2022).

Food Accessibility: Food accessibility refers to the economic, social, and physical ability of individuals and households to obtain sufficient food. The existence of adequate food supplies at national or international levels does not automatically mean that every household can access them. Household income, purchasing power, and distance from food markets are important factors that determine access to food (World Bank, 2022; Berry et al., 2023).

Food Utilisation: Food utilisation refers to the manner in which the human body processes and benefits from nutrients obtained through food consumption. Proper utilisation depends on adequate energy and nutrient intake, appropriate feeding and care practices, proper food preparation, dietary diversity, sanitation, and fair distribution of food among household members (FAO, 2020; Berry et al., 2023).

Food Stability: Food stability refers to the ability to maintain food availability, accessibility, and utilisation over time. It means that individuals and households should be able to access sufficient food consistently without losing that access because of unexpected events such as climate-related disasters, economic crises, conflicts, or political instability. It ensures that food security is maintained both in the present and in the future (Kiribou et al., 2024; World Bank, 2022).

Community Food Security: Community food security refers to a condition in which all members of a community have access to safe, culturally acceptable, and nutritionally adequate food through a sustainable food system that promotes local self-reliance and social justice (Hamm & Bellows, 2003). It also considers the social, economic, and institutional conditions that influence food availability, quality, and affordability within the community (Okpara & Anugwa, 2022).

Household Food Security: Household food security exists when every member of a household has consistent access to sufficient food for an active and healthy life. It involves the availability of safe and nutritious food and the ability of household members to obtain acceptable food without depending on emergency food supplies, scavenging, or other harmful coping practices (FAO, 2020; Ukonu et al., 2024).

Strategy: A strategy is a planned approach or set of actions developed to achieve specific objectives, particularly where uncertainty or challenges exist. In relation to food security, it refers to deliberate policies, institutional arrangements, and resource allocation measures designed to ensure that all groups in society have continuous access to sufficient and nutritious food.

Coping Strategies: Coping strategies are the actions adopted by households to manage food shortages and other conditions associated with food insecurity. These may include changing dietary habits, diversifying income sources, selling household assets, borrowing from others, migration, and participating in informal food-sharing arrangements. Depending on their long-term effects on household welfare, these strategies may be beneficial or harmful (Quinton et al., 2024; Oduehie et al., 2024).

Farm Household: A farm household is a family or household unit whose main source of livelihood comes from agricultural activities, including crop production, livestock farming, or a combination of both. In this study, the term refers mainly to smallholder farming households in Edo State that engage in subsistence and semi-commercial agricultural production (Ehiwario et al., 2024; Nnaji et al., 2022).

Food Security Index: A food security index is a numerical measure used to determine and assess the food security condition of households or populations. One of the approaches used in Nigerian food security studies is the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) model, which measures the incidence, depth, and severity of food insecurity in relation to a defined food security threshold (Omotayo et al., 2022; Ehiwario et al., 2024).

Lean Season: The lean season is the period of the agricultural year, usually before the next harvest, when food supplies from the previous harvest have reduced or become exhausted while new crops are not yet ready. During this period, farming households may experience greater difficulty obtaining sufficient food and may adopt negative coping strategies to manage shortages (Quinton et al., 2024).

Malnutrition: Malnutrition refers to a physical condition resulting from inadequate, excessive, or unbalanced intake of nutrients. It includes undernutrition, such as stunting, wasting, underweight, and micronutrient deficiencies, as well as overnutrition, including overweight, obesity, and diet-related non-communicable diseases (WHO, UNICEF & World Bank, 2023; Onyeaka et al., 2024).

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