CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Language exists mainly for communication, but how it communicates depends on speakers' experiences, attitudes, cultural settings and perceptions (Holmes & Wilson, 2022). Linguists use the term register for the variety of language tied to a particular use or situation (Biber & Conrad, 2019). Lawyers use a legal register, physicians a medical one and clergy a religious one (Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2021). Because religious communication has recognisable patterns of vocabulary and style, it is a worthwhile register to study. Recent Nigerian studies already treat it as a distinct field of linguistic enquiry (Anyanwu et al., 2016; God'sgift, 2020).

This study examines the language of the Christian religion in its spoken and written forms, with specific reference to the Roman Catholic Church and selected Pentecostal denominations. Christianity is the world's largest religion. Pew Research Center (2025) estimates 2.3 billion Christians in 2020, about 28.8% of the global population. Other belief systems, such as Platonism, Marxism and liberal democracy, also command allegiance. Even so, Christianity is fully intelligible only to people who take part in its practices and commit to its values (McGrath, 2021).

The Historical Roots of Christianity

Christianity began in Jerusalem and spread to other cities in Palestine and beyond (McGrath, 2021). Its first adherents were Jews. Recent scholarship stresses that the movement understood itself within Judaism rather than as a separate religion (Fredriksen, 2018). Its relationship with Judaism combined continuity and tension: it claimed Jewish Scripture and hope as its own while also defining itself against parts of Jewish tradition. Later episodes of persecution and hostility toward Jews show that the tension sometimes outweighed the continuity, but the connection was never completely broken (Fredriksen, 2018).

The Hebrew Scriptures remain part of the Christian Bible, which keeps this link visible. Christians believe that Jesus, whom they worship as Lord, was himself a Jew and that the New Testament is read together with the Old. The separation grew largely from a change in membership, as Gentile converts came to outnumber Jewish believers. The apostle Paul was central to this change. He was a Jew by birth who understood his calling as bringing the message of Christ to the Gentiles, and his letters to early congregations became foundational for Christian thought (Wright, 2018).

Christianity is easier to describe historically than to define in strictly logical terms. One feature appears across nearly all its historical forms, which is the centrality of Jesus Christ (McGrath, 2021). Christians hold that his crucifixion, death and resurrection reconciled humanity to God, and for this reason the cross became the main symbol of divine love and the focus of Christian devotion (McGrath, 2021).

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The word catholic comes from the Greek katholikos, meaning "universal," and it was applied to the Christian Church from the early second century. After the East–West Schism of 1054, the Western Church became generally known as "Catholic" and the Eastern Church as "Orthodox" (Ware, 2015). After the sixteenth-century Reformation, the church in communion with the Bishop of Rome kept the name to distinguish itself from Protestant churches (O'Collins & Farrugia, 2015).

The Roman Catholic Church is the largest Christian body. The Vatican's Central Office of Church Statistics (2025) reports that the Catholic population rose from about 1.39 billion in 2022 to 1.406 billion in 2023. Nigeria is among the countries with the most baptised Catholics, with about 35 million. The Pope leads the Church and exercises supreme authority together with the college of bishops. The Church describes its mission as proclaiming the gospel, administering the sacraments and practising charity, and it runs schools, universities, hospitals, missions and shelters worldwide (O'Collins & Farrugia, 2015). It professes to be "one, holy, catholic and apostolic," founded by Christ. It teaches that its bishops are successors of the apostles, that the Pope as successor of St. Peter holds universal primacy of jurisdiction, and that the Holy Spirit preserves it from doctrinal error. Its beliefs rest on Scripture and Sacred Tradition as interpreted by its teaching office and are set out in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2012). Its public worship is called the liturgy, and the Eucharist is its centre.

Doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church

Catholic doctrine affirms one eternal God existing as three persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, who together form the Trinity (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2012). "Church" refers to the people of God who abide in Christ and are nourished by his body. Catholics hold that the fullness of the means of salvation subsists in the Catholic Church. The Church also acknowledges that the Holy Spirit may use other Christian communities to lead people to salvation. It further teaches that a person who is through no fault of their own unaware of the Church may still be saved (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2012).

Following the Council of Trent, the Church holds that Christ instituted seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance), Anointing of the Sick (formerly Extreme Unction), Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Catholics regard these as visible signs through which God's presence and grace are effectively conveyed (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2012).

In the doctrine of the Incarnation, the Church teaches that through the Holy Spirit God united himself to human nature when Christ was conceived in the womb of the Virgin Mary, so that Christ is both fully divine and fully human. Devotion to Mary has a special place in Catholic piety but is distinct from the worship owed to God alone. The Church honours her as perpetual virgin and Mother of God. It teaches her Immaculate Conception, defined as dogma by Pope Pius IX in 1854, and her bodily Assumption into heaven, defined by Pope Pius XII in 1950 (O'Collins & Farrugia, 2015). Common devotions include the Rosary, the Hail Mary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare.

After baptism, Catholics may receive forgiveness of later sins through the sacrament of Reconciliation (confession). The penitent confesses to a priest, who offers counsel and assigns a penance. The priest is bound by the seal of confession and may never disclose what he has heard (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2012). Catholic teaching also holds that, at death, each soul receives a particular judgment from God based on the life lived on earth.

Pentecostal Denominations

Modern Pentecostalism is commonly traced to the revival at the Azusa Street Mission in Los Angeles, which began in April 1906, when worshippers reported an experience they called the baptism of the Holy Spirit (Anderson, 2014; Espinosa, 2014). Early Pentecostals promoted the "full gospel," also called the "fourfold" or "foursquare" gospel. It presents Jesus as Saviour (John 3:16), Baptiser in the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:4), Healer (James 5:15) and Coming King (1 Thess. 4:16–17) (Anderson, 2014).

Pentecostals hold that the Bible has divine authority in matters of faith and generally read it literally. They differ from many other evangelicals in rejecting cessationism, the view that miraculous gifts ceased with the apostolic age. They teach that gifts such as speaking in tongues, prophecy and healing continue today (Keener, 2021). The baptism of the Holy Spirit is therefore central to their belief and practice. They also teach that salvation is received by grace through faith in Christ and cannot be earned by good works alone, a point on which they contrast themselves with Catholic teaching (Anderson, 2014). Speaking in tongues and other forms of Spirit-led speech are of special interest to linguists because they make spoken religious language part of the worship experience itself.

Ordinances and Practices of Pentecostal Denominations

Like other Christians, Pentecostals hold that certain ceremonies were commanded by Jesus in the New Testament. Many Pentecostals call these ordinances, while Catholics call them sacraments (Anderson, 2014). Communion is regarded as a direct command of Jesus at the Last Supper, and some Pentecostal groups use grape juice instead of wine. Pentecostalism has grown strongly in Africa, including Nigeria, where it shapes everyday expression as well as formal worship. Pentecostal phrases such as "by the grace of God" and "glory be to God" now appear in ordinary Nigerian English and serve distinct pragmatic functions (God'sgift, 2020). Nigerian research has also compared the English of Pentecostal and mainline churches (Anyanwu et al., 2016), which is the gap this study addresses.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Christianity comprises many denominations with differing doctrines, worship styles and traditions. It is not yet clear whether these differences show up in the language each denomination uses in worship and religious communication. This study investigates whether the language of the Christian religion varies across denominations, using the Roman Catholic Church and selected Pentecostal denominations as case studies.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to describe the language of the Christian religion, with particular reference to the Roman Catholic Church and selected Pentecostal denominations, in order to identify the similarities and differences in their use of language. The study pursues this aim by examining the spoken and written forms of language used in the two traditions.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

First, the study examines the language of the Christian religion, a register that has received comparatively little scholarly attention, especially in the Nigerian context (Anyanwu et al., 2016; God'sgift, 2020). Second, it will serve as a reference for future researchers in linguistics, religious studies and related fields. Third, it will show how language is deliberately used in worship in the two denominations. Finally, it will show that even within a single religious register there are meaningful differences between denominations.

1.5 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

The study is limited to materials drawn from the Catholic and Pentecostal traditions. Religious language occurs in many contexts, and this work considers religious newspapers and bulletins, radio recordings, audio and video discs, local publicity materials promoting church events, sermons preached in both denominations and the Holy Bible.

1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study used the observation method during church services. Observation was carried out in three Catholic and three Pentecostal churches in the Enugu metropolis:

1. Saint Mary's Catholic Church, Uwani, Enugu
2. Christ the King Catholic Church, G.R.A., Enugu
3. Caritas University Chaplaincy, Amorji-Nike, Enugu
4. Apostolic Faith Church, Nkponkiti Road, Enugu
5. Assemblies of God, Isiagu Street, Uwani, Enugu
6. Living Faith Church, Winners Avenue, off Presidential Road, Enugu

Secondary sources included textbooks, journal articles, Christian newspapers, the Holy Bible, written sermons and online materials.

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Sermon: A religious address, usually spoken, that guides the behaviour of listeners through moral exhortation and illustrative examples.

Liturgies: Prescribed forms of public worship, including invocations, petitions and responses, which may be spoken or sung.

Theological text: A discursive document with a moral or doctrinal purpose, written by a biblical scholar, theologian or member of the clergy.

Rituals: Formal ceremonies that mark significant religious events such as baptisms, weddings and funerals.

Omnipotent: Possessing unlimited power.

Supernatural: Relating to events, forces or beings that science cannot explain and that are attributed to God, gods or other spiritual agencies.

Benediction: A blessing pronounced at the close of a worship service.

Carnality: A state of being governed by worldly or bodily desires rather than by the Spirit.

REFERENCES

Anderson, A. H. (2014). An introduction to Pentecostalism: Global charismatic Christianity (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Anyanwu, E., Njemanze, Q. U., & Ononiwu, M. C. (2016). English usage pattern in Nigerian religious settings: Perspectives from selected worship centers in Imo State. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 21(6), 1–6.

Biber, D., & Conrad, S. (2019). Register, genre, and style (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Central Office of Church Statistics. (2025). Annuarium statisticum Ecclesiae 2023. Libreria Editrice Vaticana.

Espinosa, G. (2014). William J. Seymour and the origins of global Pentecostalism: A biography and documentary history. Duke University Press.

Fredriksen, P. (2018). When Christians were Jews: The first generation. Yale University Press.

God'sgift, O. U. (2020). Pentecostalism and Nigeria's English usage: A pragmatic analysis of select expressions. Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research, 17(4), 107–127.

Holmes, J., & Wilson, N. (2022). An introduction to sociolinguistics (6th ed.). Routledge.

Keener, C. S. (2021). Miracles today: The supernatural work of God in the modern world. Baker Academic.

Libreria Editrice Vaticana. (2012). Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana.

McGrath, A. E. (2021). Christian theology: An introduction (7th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.

O'Collins, G., & Farrugia, E. G. (2015). Catholicism: The story of Catholic Christianity (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Pew Research Center. (2025). How the global religious landscape changed from 2010 to 2020. https://www.pewresearch.org

Wardhaugh, R., & Fuller, J. M. (2021). An introduction to sociolinguistics (8th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.

Ware, K. (2015). The Orthodox Church (New ed.). Penguin.